Effectiveness of Exogenous Melatonin in Insomnia

Effectiveness of Exogenous Melatonin in Insomnia WOO YUN KIN CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Research Background Sleep is not always a luxury. Insomnia is defined as a sleep disorder in which there is an inability to fall asleep or stay asleep as long as desired (Roth T. 2007). It is estimated that up to 34% of adults in the United States and 37% in Europe have some forms of insomnia (Leger D. 2005). Insomnia can be classified to mild, moderate and severe according to the International Classification of Sleep Disorder (ICSD). Melatonin (5-methoxy-N-acetyltryptamine) is a lipid soluble hormone secreted by the pineal gland during hours of darkness. Melatonin has several physiological functions including regulation of the circadian rhythms, modulation of seasonal change and a powerful antioxidant (Gitto et al. 2013). With age, it has been shown that the 24hour melatonin secretion is significantly reduced thus affecting the normal circadian cycle (Iguchi et al. 1982). At present, insomnia is typically treated symptomatically, often with benzodiazepine or antidepressants. However chronic insomnia requires long term treatment which may cause significant side effects and unwanted drug-drug interaction. Approximately 29-61% of older adults with insomnia complaints have preexisting sleep apnea (Krakow et al. 2001). With the combination of insomnia and sleep apnea, sedative-hypnotic treatments may worsen the sleep apnea (Mendelson et al. 1981). Exogenous melatonin is a chronobiotic drug with some hypnotic properties (Zhdanova et al. 1997), it has become of the most frequently non-prescribed sleep aid due to its role in regulating and promoting sleep (Wagner et al. 1998). some studies have shown that supplemental melatonin can increase sleep propensity, although it may not be as effective as prescribed sleep medication (Zhdanova I. 2005). Problem Statement Sleep adequacy includes, quality, timing and also duration. It has been estimated that the direct health cost of sleep disorder amounts to $1144 million Australian dollars in 2001 (NHS Aus. 2001), and 7.6% of the total motor vehicle accidents(MVA) in 2004 are indirectly caused by sleep disorders amounting to $808million net health costs. Studies have been done to show the benefits of exogenous melatonin for sleep disorders on individuals with intellectual disabilities and adolescence however very little has been done to show its effectiveness on the general population. Malaysia, has one of the highest rate of MVA in the world where according to Malaysian Institute of Road Safety (MIROS), from 1997 to 2007, there has been an increase of 59% of MVA and the main reason identified was driving fatigue due to awkward working hours/shift works (Kee et al. 2010). Availability of exogenous in Malaysia is scarce and it is not fully understood. Research Question How effective is exogenous melatonin in treating insomnia in general population? How safe is exogenous melatonin? Research Objective To review efficacy of exogenous melatonin in treating insomnia To access the safety of exogenous melatonin Significance of Research Data from available clinical trials and studies done on the efficacy of exogenous melatonin in insomnia will be compiled and compared to enable a more comprehensive and easily accessible result database. With the comprehensive database, clinicians will have a better understanding on the efficacy of MSCs and the best treatment option for the patient, thus improving patients quality of life. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INSOMNIA Insomnia is often defined by the presence of an individual’s report of difficulty with sleep (Roth T 2007). The criteria often used in diagnosing insomnia includes i)difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep or nonrestorative sleep, ii) this opportunity is present despite adequate opportunity and circumstance to sleep, iii) this impairment in sleep is associated with daytime impairment or distress and iv) this sleep difficulty occurs at least 3 times per week and has been a problem for the past 1 month (Roth T 2007). The pathophysiology of insomnia can be due to the disorder of the hyper-arousal state throughout the whole day which causes alertness during the day and difficulty in falling or maintaining sleep (Stepanski E, 1988). A cross sectional study done on 156 US air force personal found that 40% suffered from sleep disorder and 75% reported diminished sleep quality while deployed overseas (Peterson AL, 2008). A study done in 2013 (Lentino et al, 2013) showed that 25% of the 14148 army and national guard personal reported to be poor sleepers thus affecting the quality of sleep and the quality of service. 2.2 CURRENT TREATMENT FOR INSOMNIA Currently the medications used for treating insomnias and other sleep disorders includes benzodiazepine receptor agonist (eg. Zolpidem, zipoclone) which are only limited to short term use (4 weeks) (Sanofi Aventis, 2007). The medication large affects the brain through the GABA receptors and long term use has been associated with memory and balance impairment, rebound imsomnia, withdrawal symptoms and abuse potential (Rush CR, 1999). Recent short termed studies have shown that discontinuation of the benzodiazepines lead to disruption of the sleep architecture and also increases sleep latency which makes withdrawing from treatment difficult (Mann K, 1996). 2.3 MELATONIN Melatonin (5-methoxy-N-acetyltryptamine) is a lipid soluble hormone that is shown to be involved with the sleep physiology (Dijk D-J, 1997).it is also regulates the modulation of season change, in reproduction, antioxidant, oncostatic, anti inflammatory and anti-convulsant effect (Gitto E, 2013). Melatonin is mostly produced in the pineal gland in the brain during the hours of darkness and is involved in the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle (circadian cycle).the circadian process is maintained by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which contains high number of melatonin receptors. During daytime, the SCN produces an arousal signal that maintains the wakefulness and prevents sleep drive however in darkness, there is a feedback loop which causes the release of melatonin which feeds back and inhibits the SCN (Geert et al, 2009) It has been documented that melatonin decreases with age especially in post menopausal women (Okatani Y, 2000). Other than to promote sleep, melatonin also show s sedative and anti-excitory effects (Hardeland R, 2008). 2.4 EXOGENOUS MELATONIN Exogenous melatonin has become one of the most frequently prescribed over the counter drug for those looking for non-prescription sleep medication (Wagner J, 1998). The exogenous melatonin is marketed to help promote quality sleep, helps in jet lag, or to regulate the circadian cycle due to jet lag or shift work due to its regulator role in the internal timing of biological rhythm. Some studies have shown that exogenous melatonin can help increase the sleep propensity although it may not be as effective as prescribed sleep medications (Zhdanova I, 2005). Studies have also been done regarding the use of exogenous melatonin in the treatment of sleep problems in individuals with sleep disability (Turk 2003) however there are still doubts on the efficacy of exogenous melatonin usage for the general public. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design This research was based on the PICOS guidelines : Population (P): All types of insomnia patients Intervention (I): Exogenous melatonin Comparitor (C): Insomnia patients on treatment with exogenous melatonin compared with other treatment by questionnaires Outcome (O): Efficacy and safety of treatment Study design (S): Randomized Controlled trials (RCT), Surveys 3.2 Database Literature search was done on electronic articles/ journals in Central, PubMed and Google Scholar. 3.3 Keywords Key words used to search articles with MESH terms were: Insomnia Exogenous melatonin 3.4 Quality Assessment Quality assessment of the paper was done using Jadad scoring for randomized controlled trials (RCT) and Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for case-control and cohort studies. 1.Jaded score assesses the quality of published clinical trials based on methods relevant to random assignment, double blinding and the flow of patients. There are 7 criteria evaluated, whereby 1 point is given if the criteria is met and the last 2 crietria carries a negative mark. Range of score is from 0 (bad) to 5 (good) (Jadad et al. 1996). i. Was the study described as randomized (this include words such as randomly, random, and randomization)? [+1 point] ii. Was the method used to generate the sequence of randomization described and appropriate (table of random numbers, computer generated etc)? [+1 point] iii. Was the study described as double blind? [+1 point] iv. Was the method of double blinding described and appropriate (identical placebo, active placebo, dummy, etc)? [+1 point] v. Was there a description of withdrawals and dropouts? [+1point] vi. Deduct one point if the method used to generate the sequence of randomization was described and it was inappropriate (patients were allocated alternately, or according to date of birth, hospital number, etc)? vii. Deduct one point if the study was described as double blind but the method of blinding was inappropriate (eg. comparison of table vs. injection with no double dummy) 2. Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) is developed to assess the quality of the non-randomized studies with its design, content and ease of use directed to the purpose of incorporating the quality assessments in the interpretation of the results. A ‘star system’ is developed to judge on 3 broad perspectives (Wells et al. 2014): i. The selection of the study groups ii. The comparability of the groups The ascertainment of either the exposure or outcome of interest for case-control or cohort studies respectively 3.5 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Inclusion criteria Studies included in this review were chosen according to the flowing criteria : i. Papers published in English language (2010-2015) ii. All study designs were included to maximize the data collection Study subjects includes all types of insomnia patients Exclusion criteria Studies that were done in foreign language and animal studies were excluded in this review 3.6 Ethical Clearance The ethical committee of UCSI was notified regarding this thesis write-up 3.7 GAANT Chart 3.8 Milestone Proposal presentation: 27.02.2015 Submission: 31.03.2015 Data analysis complete: 30.05.2015 Thesis submission: 15.07.2015 REFERENCES 1. CATHERINE CORNU, L. R., FLORENCE NOEL-BARON, ALAIN NICOLAS, NATHALIE FEUGIER-FAVIER, PASCAL ROY, BRUNO CLAUSTRAT, M. S.-E. A. B. K. 2010. A dietary supplement to improve the quality of sleep: a randomized placebo controlled trial. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 10. 2. SZESEEN KEE, S. B. M. T., YONGMENG GOH 2010. Driving Fatigue and Performance among Occupational Drivers in Simulated Prolonged Driving. Global Journal of Health Science, 2. 3. REBECCA B COSTELLO, C. V. L., COURTNEY C BOYD, MEGHAN L O’CONNELL, CINDY C CRAWFORD, DEUSTER, M. L. S. A. P. A. 2014. The effectiveness of melatonin for promoting healthy sleep: a rapid evidence assessment of the literature. Nutrition Journal, 13. 4. DAVID R HILLMAN, M., FRCPE, FANZCA; ANITA SCOTT MURPHY, BEC; RAL ANTIC, MB, FRACP; LYNNE PEZZULLO, BEC 2006. The Economic Cost of Sleep Disorders. Sleep, 29. 5. GEERT MAYER, M. S. W.-W., MD, PHD; BARBARA ROTH-SCHECHTER, PHD; REINER LEHMANN, MD; CORINNE STANER, MD; MARKKU PARTINEN, MD, PHD 2009. Efficacy and Safety of 6-Month Nightly Ramelteon Administration in Adults with Chronic Primary Insomnia. Sleep, 32. 6. FRANK A.J.L. SCHEER, P. C. J. M., PHD; JOANNA I. GARCIA, BA; CAROLINA SMALES, BSC; ERIN E. KELLY, MSC; JENNY MARKS, MPH; ATUL MALHOTRA, M. S. A. S., PHD 2012. Repeated Melatonin Supplementation Improves Sleep in Hypertensive Patients Treated with Beta-Blockers: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Sleep, 35. 7. JONATHAN J. BASKETT, J. B. B., PHILIP C. WOOD, JOHN R. DUNCAN,MEGAN J. PLEDGER, JUDIE ENGLISH, JOSEPHINE ARENDT 2003. Does melatonin improve sleep in older people? A randomised crossover trial. Age and Aging, 32, 164-170. 8. P GRINGRAS, C. G., A P JONES , L WIGGS , P R WILLIAMSON , A SUTCLIFFE , P MONTGOMERY, W P WHITEHOUSE , I CHOONARA, A EDMOND, R APPLETON 2012. Melatonin for sleep problems in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: randomised doubl emasked placebo controlled trial. BMJ, 354. 9. LIIRA J, V. J., COSTA G, DRISCOLL TR, SALLINEN M, ISOTALO LK, RUOTSALAINEN JH 2014. Pharmacological interventions for sleepiness and sleep disturbances caused by shift work (Review). The Cochrane Collaboration. 10. VENKATARAMANUJAM SRINIVASAN, D. D. B., TIMO PARTONEN,RAHIMAH ZAKARIA,ZAHIRUDDIN OTHMAN 2014. The use of melatonin for treating sleep disorders in patients with Parkinson’s disease. ChronoPhysiology and Therapy, 51-57. 11. THOMAS ROTH 2007. Insomnia: Definition, Prevalence, Etiology, and Consequences. Supplement, 3 12. LUCIA MARSEGLIA, G. D. A., SARA MANTI, SALVATORE AVERSA , TERESA ARRIGO, RUSSEL J. REITER, ELOISA GITTO 2015. Analgesic, Anxiolytic and Anaesthetic Effects of Melatonin: New Potential Uses in Pediatrics. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 1209-1220. 13. SCHWAB, N. S. G. P. G. I. G. E. A.-S. E. M. R. 2010. Effectiveness of Ramelteon for Insomnia Symptoms in Older Adults with Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Randomized Placebo- Controlled Pilot Study. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 6 14. ROSEANNE DEFRONZO DOBKIN, M. M., KARINA L. BIENFAIT, LESLEY A. ALLEN, HUMBERTO MARIN, AND MICHAEL A. GARA 2009. Ramelteon for the treatment of insomnia in menopausal women. Menopause Int., 15, 13-18. 15. JAMIE M. ZEITZER, B. K., DOUG OTA, B. JENNY KIRATLI 2014. Randomized controlled trial of pharmacological replacement of melatonin for sleep disruption in individuals with tetraplegia. The Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine, 37. 16. GIULIANA GALLI-CARMINATIA, N. D., GILLES BERTSCHY 2009. Melatonin in the treatment of chronic sleep disorders in adults with autism: a retrospective study. S W i S S M e d W k ly, 139, 293-296.

Alcoholism among Victorians Essay -- Victorian Era

Alcoholism among Victorians Wrayburn: â€Å"It will be necessary, I think, to wind up Mr. Dolls, before anything to any mortal purpose can be got out of him. Brandy, Mr. Dolls, or - ?† Mr. Dolls: â€Å"Threepenn’orth Rum.† --Our Mutual Friend by Charles Dickens Throughout Victorian society â€Å"gin was the preferred spirit of the lower class, while wine and brandy were imbibed by the more comfortable citizenry† (Alcoholic Beverages 12). During the nineteenth century, the Victorians had high expectations of their class system to make sure the classes were distinct and properly represented. They â€Å"valued controlled, propitious behavior† and would tolerate nothing less (Harding Victorians and Alcohol). There was a â€Å"cultural value placed on teetotaling,† total abstinence from alcoholic drinks, but despite this value â€Å"alcohol consumption became a popular pastime† (Harding Victorians and Alcohol). Behavior such as drunkenness was strongly disapproved of because of its association with the lower class. Alcoholism: Representation of the Working Class It was widely known that â€Å"drunkenness, and the related loss of self-control, was associated with the lower classes† and therefore had negative connotations (Harding Victorians and Alcohol). Spirits, a popular hard liquor, â€Å"had become the everyday drink for less wealthy people† and â€Å"laborers commonly used spirits to flee from their desolate everyday lives† (Harding Victorians and Alcohol). The awful working and living conditions of the working class contributed to their â€Å"hard, controlled, and monotonous life, [leading] to excessive drinking of hard liquor† (Harding Victorians and Alcohol). This excessive drinking would sometimes result in public intoxication which was â€Å"regarded as anti-s... ...ss, Inc. 1996. 12. Distad, Merrill N. â€Å"Food and Diet.† Victorian Britain: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. 1988. 304-307. Garwood, John. â€Å"Religious and moral Character of the Pensioners, and Provisions made for their Instruction.† Social Investigation/Journalism – The Million-Peopled City. (1853): 94-96. 11 Mar. 2005 Harding, Stephen. â€Å"Alcohol.† Victorians’ Secrets. â€Å"Absinthe and Victorians.† Victorians’ Secrets. 2000. University of Texas at Arlington. 24 Feb. 2005. Kent, Christopher A. â€Å"Drink.† Twentieth-Century Britain: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995. 239-240. Murdock, Catherine Gilbert. Domesticating Drink: Women, Men, and Alcohol in America, 1870-1940 . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.

Healing Hospital

Healing hospital paradigm is centered on the removal of stress and other health risks for the patients and their families in the hospital environment. Healing hospital paradigm is important because treating a patient’s illness is not the only intrinsic component when they are admitted to the hospital. A good example for this is stress. Stress can be brought about due to many things when a patient is in the hospital, for example painful treatments, financial problems due to being admitted, loss of social life etc.Reducing these sort of stressors may ensure that the patient’s wellbeing is being maintained and the comprehensive care Minimization of these stressors ensures that the patient’s well-being is maintained while the comprehensive care part of the treatment makes certain that the patient’s recovery process is done without breaking confidentiality. The healing hospital paradigm can also be looked as healing the whole patient rather than just curing the ailment (Young & Koopsen, 2006).According to Dr. Milstein, paradigm doesn’t only focus on healing the physical body but â€Å"it aims to enhance the overall well being by addressing the patient’s and their families’ cognitive, emotional and spiritual concerns† (Milstein, 2005). This paper will describe healing hospital paradigm, its impact on the process of care giving and its components expanding on it relationship with spirituality. Components of Healing HospitalBased on the paradigm of healing hospital, Caring for a patient is not limited to only medical interventions and medication but it also includes how the healthcare provider engages the patients and their families to the process of treatment. This theory is based on the notion that both spiritual and emotional wellbeing applies to physical wellbeing. The healing hospital comprise of three major components. The first component is the culture of radical loving care. This may include the kind of ca re the patient receives and the type of conditions he/she is exposed to in the hospital.This component focuses on making the patient comfortable and preparing the patient psychologically for the treatment they would receive. Caregivers most have compassion to meet the spiritual and emotional needs of a patient and not only their physical needs. They most be able to demonstrate loving care and show the patients that they are willing to go the extra mile for them. Being compassionate and showing love can help reduce the stress for the patients and their families, healthcare provides bring hope. The next component is the healing physical environment.The physical environment in which a patient is being treated is also very crucial in the treatment process (Samueli, 2010). Hospitals should be free of stressful disturbances for the patient and their families. This kind of disturbances may include dull settings, noise and disorganization. A good healing physical environment must be well or ganized and constructed. Evidence has shown that rest is an important part of a patient’s healing process, but many hospitals are noisy with pagers beeping here and there and lots of people talking along the hallways.A good healing physical environment should address these kinds of challenges. Other things such as lighting and temperature must be well regulated to keep the patient as comfortable as possible. The final component of healing hospital is the integration of technology with work design. Technology is intertwined into the healthcare field to help the healthcare team help their patients recover in a good environment. Technology allows the staff members to work efficiently and to work in a manner that maximizes the comfort of the patients.In a good healing environment, patients get more sleep which helps with their healing. Staff members are giving technological equipments such as cordless phones, vibrating pagers and dynamaps for blood pressure, and they are educated to use them efficiently to promote healing in a noise-free environment. These technological advancements help to create stress-free environment for the patients and helps reduce medical errors. The healing hospitals also use technology to provide satisfaction, security, decreased cost and privacy for the patients and their families.These are crucial in the psychological needs of the patient. Challenges of Creating a Healing Environment There are various challenges involved in implementing a good healing hospital environment. First and foremost, the advancement of technology (e. g. more tubes and more wires) has complicated healthcare and is dominating in that healthcare providers are forgetting the original essentials of healing such as the compassion and the loving care. If the balance between technology and compassion can bee implemented, the results of patient satisfaction will increase.Another challenge with technology advancement also focuses on the profits rather the compassi onate care of the patient. The next challenge is that there are a lot of similarities between prisons and hospitals. Patients’ clothing’s are replaced by gowns, their names with barcodes and identification numbers, there is no longer any intimacy and they share their living space with strangers. Even restriction in visiting hours can make an individual feel like a prisoner. This is all due to that fact that healthcare providers are suppose to their tasks with robotic precision.According to Chapman, the hospital system is a â€Å"bureaucracy† and it is â€Å"an organization that acts as machines and are difficult to work with† (Chapman, 2010). Another challenge is that some healthcare providers or even family members and patients could be cynics. Cynicism is damaging to the care of patients. Healthcare providers should not be skeptic to the fact that love is a vital part of a patient’s recovery. Finally, leadership is an important aspect of healing hospital paradigm. The leaders in a healthcare setting have the responsibility to make sure love and compassion is at the top of the list in their plan to care for a patient.Biblical Passage that Supports the Concept of Healing Hospital In psalm 107 verses 17-22, the message version, David wrote â€Å"then you called out to God in you desperate condition; he got you out in the nick of time†. Here he describes how God heals the sick when they call on him. The sick in this passage have faith and are not cynics or skeptics which is and important part of healing. David explained the reality, living a bad life could get you sick and having faith that you would get better can heal you. It’s all about the positivity. David went on saying â€Å"So thank God for his marvelous love, for his miracle mercy to the children he loves†.This goes on to show that God’s love brings healing. This passage supports the paradigm of healing hospital because it has to do with hea ling the overall person and God does that too. The healing hospital is gaining more popularity now because there are a lot of benefits to it. This care system helps to enhance the overall wellbeing of the patient and their relatives and not only their physical body. This paradigm focuses on compassionate care that helps patient with stress and coping mechanisms through spirituality. This will help the community at large and bring it solace and hope. ReferencesChapman, E. (2010). Radical loving care: building the healing hospital in America. Nashville, TN: Vaughn Printing. Milstein, J. (2005). A paradigm of integrative care: healing with curing throughout life, â€Å"being with† and â€Å"doing to†. Journal of Perinatology, 25, 563-568. doi: 10. 1038/sj. jp. 7211358 Samueli Institute (2010). Optimal Healing Environments. February 12, 2013. Retrieved from http://www. siib. org/news/280-SIIB/version/default/part/AttachmentData/data/OHE_final. pdf Young, C. , & Koopsen, C. (2006). Spirituality, health, and healing (1 ed. ). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Framing news on foreign countries - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 27 Words: 8055 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Framing news on foreign countries: Media Interests and Motivations. Analyzing 10 yrs of US and UK newspaper editorials on Venezuela. OUTLINE 1) INTRODUCTION Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Framing news on foreign countries" essay for you Create order 2) LITERATURE REVIEW   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -On News Framing   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   3) RESEARCH QUESTIONS 4) VARIABLES- Dependent   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚     Ãƒâ€šÃ‚      Independent 5) RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 6) METHODOLOGY   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Method   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Population   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Sample   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Time Period   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Coding Units   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Coding Procedure   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Framing Variables   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Coder Reliability   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   -Coding sheet 7) BIBLIOGRAPHY 1)INTRODUCTION Media organizations are essential in international affairs in terms of their important role in providing information to the public.[3] The question has often been whether the Media frames news in the context of the national interest of the host country, for example. Whether they reflect official position without challenging them or rather influence national interest objectives by putting pressure on politicians. The Mediaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interest and other motivating factors are essential for understanding how editorials for instance are framed. Lacking in the study of Media framing is the application to bilateral relations. This study would attempt to add that dimension to the numerous researches on the Media in international affairs. It would analyze editorials by four prominent newspapers in the United States and the United Kingdom on issues concerning Venezuela. The aim is to find the likely motivating factors when it comes to framing news on foreign countries For many countries the media represents an important window to the international world. Patched knowledge on foreign issues would be close to a reality without a source of information about what happens elsewhere in the world, made available by the media. In democratic countries in particular, the reliance on the media for foreign news might be as important as the quest for local news. Images of foreign countries, issues and happenings in a particular country abroad are likely to be influenced by the media to a much larger scale when impressions are created of a healthy or strained bi-lateral relations, for instance. Due to factors such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"cultural assumptionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"political beliefsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, it is believed that news carves out images and impressions of the world some of which are preferred over other images.[4] The media, both electronic and print are a major component of the democratic processes in several countries. The media has often been referred to, in many countries, as an important branch of the government with roles from functioning as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the main political informantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[7] There has been several publications on issues of Media and Government relations by several authors. For instance, in the scope of international relations and communications, there have been books published on the issue of how the media works in or out of line with foreign policy or the national interest. The debate has been whether or not the media is likely to support the national interest of the country in which it operates in relation to other countries(as the theory of Manufacturing Consent depicts)[9]. Either option makes foreign events relevant to the media. On the whole the media is believed to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"reflect social consensusà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[15] There may be variations in the nature of the Media depending on the region or country of operation. A media in a democratic country may be freer than those in a non-democratic country so news coverage, media culture and ethics could vary. In this study, a section of the Media in two democratic countries would be analyzed in terms of their positions on issues in a third country(Venezuela). What would be of interest to this study, as mention earlier, would be the factors that would be most highlighted in the accounts of these editorials. It may bring about issues of objectivity and latent Media interests or the interests of the consumers of the news content. In the US for example, the Media is often said to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"domesticate foreign newsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The themes represented in news in the US are those which often have some relevance to American interests.[17] Thus, how the media frames news is largely important for understanding the positions they yield to and their respo nse to certain foreign events. In issues of national interest and in relation to bilateral relations, it would be important to know how the media in different countries frame news on events in countries abroad. 2) LITERATURE REVIEW NEWS FRAMING Entman, (1993) suggests that the concept of framing could be studied as a feature of a political discourse or as an instrument applied by the Media in making news.[19] And by extension, Media analysis or news analysis would deserve a look at the concept of news framing. Framing is, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the process by which a communication source constructs and defines a social or political issue for its audienceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?.[23] Framing theory is also applicable to Media analysis. Media frames as explained   by Entman (1991: 7), are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"attributes of news itselfà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[24] In a broad sense, frames   are regarded as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“persistent patterns of cognition, interpretation, and presentation, and as selection, emphasis, and exclusion, by which symbol handlers routinely organize discourse, whether verbal or visual.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?.[27] Tuchman showed how framing as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"process theoryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ works. And that the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"routine proceduresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ used by newsmakers, direct news frames in a particular way.   She argues that these procedures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"continually help showcase certain places and ideas, while consistently closing off and blocking inquiry into othersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[29] Entman (1993: 52) helped refine the scope of the definition given to news framing. He established that by the definition of news frame, frames could be seen as a process that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"defines problems à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" determine what a causal agent is doing with what costs and benefits, usually measured in terms of common cultural values; diagnose causes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" identify the forces creating the problem; make moral judgments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" evaluate causal agents and their effects; and suggest remedies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" offer and justify treatments for the problems and predict their likely effectsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[30] Entman, (1991:7) also showed that frames used by the media are often captured à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"in the keywords, metaphors, concepts, symbols and visual images in news narrativesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. He stresses the point that one way is which news framing works is through repetition which is important for Media news framing because à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"news narrativesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, usually dependent on frames, are meant to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"direct attention to certain ideas, while excluding certain other ideasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[33] It has also been established that Framing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"involves processes of inclusion and exclusion as well as emphasis.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[38] Framing also has the ability to make consumers of news accept and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"adopt some symbolic themes and valuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[39] While the process of selectively and emphasis is carried out by the newsmakers, those for whom a particular news is meant, are also likely to be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"predisposed to understanding and interpreting information in a selective way.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Framing   has also been explained to be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the process of placing information into a context of preconscious symbolismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. [43] The framing process employed by the Media is regarded as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"key to shaping both the publicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s and decision-makers knowledge, image and understanding of the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[49]. Perhaps a perfect definition of the concept of framing in relation to the print media is the fact that, a frame is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"a central organizing idea or story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events, weaving a connection among them. The frame suggests what the controversy is about and the essence of the issueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[53] One of the significant areas in relation to framing of news and Media positioning is Foreign Policy. Assessments of the response of the media to foreign issues is largely based on a critical analysis of how the media operates or how a particular section of the media churns out news or editorials, for example the position that major newspapers take on certain foreign issues. In a way how it sets the agenda for government or public reactions. Both agenda setting and framing have been identified in news framing literature as ways in which the media can influence policy making and public opinion.[57]   There has been some convergence on how framing analysis can be carried out, according to the literature. Two approaches of framing analysis has evolved over the years. The Inductive approach and the Deductive approach. The latter has been proven more scientific than the former. The Deductive approach organizes the framing analysis based on pre-outlined broader frames.[59] There has also been an attempt by some authors to group frames along certain distinctions. Frames could be grouped under à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"issue-specificà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ frames which deal with particular issues in detail and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"generic framesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ which cover broader themes found in different settings.[61] One issue raised by some authors on framing is how the Media treat sources. When elite sources to news are relied on by journalists for example, they may in a way be a channel for promoting the views and opinions of the political order or the elites to the larger audience[63] Most of the literature also agree that the location of a news story gives it much weight in terms of the perceived influence on the newspaperà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s readership and how important the issues are to them. It also demonstrates the importance the media attaches to that particular issue or event.[67] In all, Media scholars have studied Framing theory as either theories of Effects and   Process. By Framing as effects theory, media scholars have studied the influence that news frames have on   audiences while studies on framing as a process theory have addressed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"how news content is created and modified in certain waysà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ considering the factors that influence the carving of news in a particular way. [68] . Although the framing of news is important to the coverage given to events and issues, there are other elements or factors that influence the framing of news in itself have to be identified.[72] This study would turn the spot light on the wide array of all the other factors that may help explain why news is framed in a particular way. As pointed out earlier, some literature on the Media have suggested that the sources that the Media relies go an extent to make the news themselves. In other words, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å" Organizations with more resources, or that have more credibility in the eyes of journalists, are more likely to become regular news sources, and thus shape which issues (agenda-setting) and which perspectives (frames) dominate the newsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[74] Some Media scholars are of the opinion that the ideal state of Media Objectivity is far fetched. Some are of the view that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"there is no fundamentally non-ideological, apolitical, non-partisan news gathering and reporting system. Since there may be dispute over objectivity and news without bias, the concept of framing becomes important to analyzing the frames used in making news.[77] While journalists may dispute these assertions, it is believed that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"news content is not an objective entity, independent of political, social, ideological or sociopsychological influencesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ than mere information.[80] As stated before, the Media often depicts the Governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s position in respect to interests and issues especially in relation to other countries. There has been the suggestion that   the Mediaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s position is based on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"national values, national interest and cultural valuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of their host countries.[82] The Media is likely to succumb to the views of governments because   the latterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s position on issues is seen as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“an overriding common good transcending the specific interests of parties, factions, and other entities smaller than the nation as a whole.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?[84]   The problem with the concept of framing is that it à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"lacks clear conceptual definitions and a comprehensive statement to guide researchà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[85] Yet these challenges would make it important for more research into factors that influence news framing. The extent to which consumers of news à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"perceive foreign leadersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in either a positive or negative light is dependent on how framing is carried out.[86] The latter point might be important to understand how the reading-public of the four sampled newspapers are likely to perceive the leadership in Venezuela. Most of the research done on news framing have largely gone in the way of foreign policy research. A few have looked at news framing in relation to another country with a lengthy time range while Media response and framing on various issues are measured and analyzed. The study hopes to add to the already existing research on news framing in this regard. 3) Proposed Research Questions Research Question 1 :What is the tone of coverage on Venezuela in U.S. and U.K. editorials? Do the two groups of newspapers differ in tone? Research Question 2: Which frames dominated in the overall coverage and was there a significant difference between the two countries in terms of the frames used? Research Question 3: Which issues dominated the overall coverage country-wise? Research Question 3: Do positions on issues covered reflect National Interest of the two countries? Research Question 4: Do these editorials rely on government sources in arriving at opinions and conclusions? Research Question 5: Which issues are most prominent in all the coverage? Research Question 6: Do the editorials lean towards a kind of political or economic ideology? 4) VARIABLES The variables for this study would be the following 1 Independent -Tone of coverage and framing in UK editorials -Tone of coverage and framing in US editorials -Most highlighted issues 2 Dependent -The interests of the UK(economic, political, other) -The   interests of the US (economic, political, other) -The ideology of the paper 5) Proposed Research Hypothesis 1 There is no difference in tone between the two groups of newspapers. 2 The level of interest given to highlighted issues between the two groups of newspapers will be the same? 3 Positioning and framing of news will depend on the interests of the host nation of the newspapers. 4 Positioning and framing of news will depend on the ideology of the host nation of the newspapers. 5 UK newspaper editorials are likely to be less critical of Venezuela because of better bi-   lateral relations. 6 US newspaper editorials are likely to be more critical of Venezuela because of worse bi-lateral relations. 6) METHODOLOGY Method The study on these editorials would be carried out using quantitative content analysis to assess qualitative data published by the four newspapers. Content analysis is defined as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"a research technique that involves measuring a content( in this case, news frames) in a random sampling of some form of communication( in this case, editorials). The basic assumption implicit in content analysis is that an investigation of messages and communication will allow some insight into the people who receive these messagesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[87]. However the use of content analysis in this study would be to capture the frames used in the sampled editorials and what informs interests in issues and not what the consumers of such news perceive or how they react to these messages. One advantage of content analysis is that unlike other research methods where the researcher can easily influence the outcome of the research, it offers à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"mediated communicationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to be rather studied rather than the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"behavior of peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ which may be difficult to analyze. Additionally it provides numbers and figures which can be quantified to secure likely viable assessments.[88] Admittedly, the use content analysis technique also brings to the fore issues concerning the representativeness of the samples used, the adequate definition of issues, difficulties with measuring units to be analyzed and coder reliability issues.[89] A conversion of coded values into quantitative statistical data would be made after the content analysis. Population The population of this study would be all editorials on Venezuela within the ten year period by high circulating newspapers in the US and the UK. The assumption is that editorials from newspapers with a relatively high number of circulations, may have been read by a significant number of people or may have reached a wider audience or a politically responsive section of the public. The study would not be concerned with gauging public reactions but in the frames used themselves. Yet high circulation newspapers offer a good basis for selection in the sample. Sample The type of sampling used in selecting editorials is Criterion Sampling .Editorials which will make up the sample   are those with references made to the words VENEZUELA and HUGO CHAVEZ and political and economic issues related to these terms. A retrieval of the editorials from the search engine LEXIS-NEXIS   has already been carried out using the following terms: VENEZUELA, HUGO CHAVEZ and EDITORIAL for the US newspaper database. For the LEXIS NEXIS -UK database, editorials were retrieved using the search terms VENEZUELA, HUGO CHAVEZ and LEADING ARTICLE. Editorials not focusing on these issues or not focusing on issues of political relevance were dropped from the sample ,for example those focusing on say sports or those with the mere mention of these terms with no relation to relevant issues discussed. US Newspapers From an earlier assessment of the account of data on newspaper circulations by the Audit Bureau of Circulations in both the USA and the UK, the highest circulating newspaper over the 10 year period was USA TODAY with the most circulations for the said period. The WALL STREET JOURNAL (WSJ) came second with the most circulations over the period. The WSJ will however be discounted because of its orientation mostly to financial news and events. The research would be limited to newspapers which mostly deal with political news and also focuses on foreign political news in itsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ content or publications. With these criteria, the third major political newspapers which polled the third highest number of circulations over the 10 year period was the NEW YORK TIMES (NYT). Thus editorials from the USA TODAY and the NYT will be used in the content analysis. UK Newspapers The selection criteria for the two highest Circulating newspapers in the UK however differ slightly from the basis on which the newspapers from the US were selected. THE DAILY TELEGRAPH and THE TIMES newspapers would be used in this study. The two newspapers averagely rank 4th and 7th in terms of circulation data according to the Audit Bureau from January 2000 to 2009. The two newspapers which ranked as the two highest-circulating newspapers for the 10 year period in the UK were THE SUN and DAILY MAIL. The two come under the category of Tabloid Newspapers and are not considered serious political newspapers. The two will not be the focus of this study. The DAILY MIRROR, DAILY STAR, and the DAILY EXPRESS ranked 3rd, 5th and 6th respectively. This study will focus on those newspapers which come under those usually termed newspapers-of- record or those which practice à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"seriousà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ journalism. Of the newspapers under this category,THE GUARDIAN and THE TIMES had averagely, the highest number of circulations during the 10 year period discounting those newspapers which fall under the tabloid category. A percentage breakdown of the editorials from each newspaper is found below. The four newspapers had on average a significant circulation tally during the specified period namely from (January) 2000 to (December) 2009. NEWSPAPER TOTAL NUMBER OF EDITORIALS ON VENEZUELA  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   (Jan 2000- Dec 2009) NUMBER OF QUALIFIED   EDITORIALS PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL NUMBER OF   EDITORIALS USA TODAY NEW YORK TIMES 42 279    21    76 15% 54% DAILY TELEGRAPH THE TIMES 19 53    18   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   26 13% 18%   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   TOTAL:    141  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   = 100%  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   (USA=69.7%) (UK=30.3%) Why Venezuela? Venezuela offers a good to chance to study the politics behind the news. Various perceived interests are involved in relation to the US, UK and Venezuela. The controversies have been over the stifling of democracy and civil rights, the abuse of power by President Chavez, issues over the supply of oil and what it means for the two western countries to have the economy of Venezuela in a bad shape. These factors make Venezuela a good choice and would it possible to analyze Media positioning on these issues in response to a relevant third country while factoring in bi-lateral relations. Time Period The choice of long time duration will allow for significant content analysis to be done on the editorials. Since this research would also assess government statements and positions on the issues arising from Venezuela, the time period which saw the BUSH and BLAIR administration for most of the period would offer an opportunity to compare the US and UK government responses and attitudes towards Venezuelan issues with hopefully little variation in policy change. The reasoning is that an unchanged administration or party in power is likely to have the same attitudes or reactions to foreign issues from a particular country than when the administration changes over a period of time, barring any major shift in interests and policy towards Venezuela by either country during the time period. The study will take all these changes into account in the final analysis, including the editorial responses and positioning on these issues. Coding Units Editorials will be the focal point for the coding procedures. Editorials are a good basis for this study because they often represent the view or position of the newspaper. Op-Eds and editorials with Bylines (those written by individuals and credited with names) have been excluded from the sample. The focus was to look out for editorials which have been written by the editorial board of the various newspapers and would represent a justifiable opinion or position of the newspaper itself rather than the views of individual writers. Coding Procedure The source for the editorials is the academic search engine; LEXIS-NEXIS (which stores electronic copies of newspaper articles and editorials including those that this study would be focused on). Pre-testing 4 independent coders would be used to code each editorial article according to frames created from a Pre-test which has already been carried out on two other newspapers. A pretest on The Washington Post and The Guardian newspapers has been carried out to source for appropriate categories of frames to be used in the final coding of the 141 editorials. In addition, coders could add extra categories of frames to the basic list during coding to update the original codebook. 24 editorials from the Washington Post and 54 editorials from The Guardian newspapers were retrieved with the same search words as the main sample. They all fit the same criteria. 25% of each newspaperà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s editorial would be used in the Pre-test. The selection was done randomly. In all 19 editorials would be used for the Pre-test. Framing Variables Frames(meant for pre-test and to be modified). the problem frames, 1-the diagnostic frames( these coverage would identify a problem and assign a responsibility to someone or some other reason) 2-the prognostic frames.( here the study seeks to find an editorialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s solution to particular problems) the presentation frames, 1-the issue frame ( coverage on issues such as economy, oil etc) 3-the image frame.( portraying leadership, attitudes, affiliation of subjects) General tone (is the editorial positive(supportive) or negative(condemnatory))? Coder Reliability An intercoder reliability would predict the amount of agreement or correspondence among the 4 coders. Intercoder Reliability is the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“extent to which the different judges tend to assign exactly the same rating to each object.[90] The Intercoder reliability would be checked for the Pre-test and the main test. The formula to be used is Holstià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (1969) formula. Coder agreement on each unit of analysis( i.e frames) would be calculated. Preliminary Coding Sheet for Newspaper Editorial Content Analysis(To be amended). Technical Data: Editorial Number= give in full Paper: 1= USA; 2= NY Times; 3= Daily Telegraph; 4=The Times Date: given in full Title of Editorial: given in full Page: page on which the editorial is written. Location( section of newspaper) 1= Editorials and Opinions; 2= Features; 3=Non Stated 99= other Length of words=   please indicate number Is a source cited?: 1= Yes; 2= No; 99= other Source cited: please indicate Country Mentioned in affiliation to venezuela: please indicate Country Location(continent): 1= Africa   2=Antarctia 3=Asia 4 =Australia 5= Europe 6=North America 7=South America Issues linked to country referred to: please indicate Themes in the News: Theme of the editorial: 1 =Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the   world 2 =Concerns over   Venezuelan crises impacting the US 3 =Concerns of economic and political life of Venezuelans being grim 4 =Concerns over oil supply and price hikes 5 =Championing support for Chavez and policies 6 =Denouncing Chavez 7 =A critique of white house intervention in Venezuelan matters 8 =Concerns over Venezuelan influence in Latin America 9 =Need to counter Chavez influence over other states 10 =That socialist economies are often a disaster 11 =Concerns over human rights abuse 12 =Concerns over Media abuse 13 =Need to have effective policies to deal with Venezuela 14 =Supporting regime change 15 =Denouncing regime change Secondary Themes: 1= Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the   world 2 =Concerns over   Venezuelan crises impacting the US 3 =Concerns of economic and political life of Venezuelans being grim 4 =Concerns over oil supply and price hikes 5 =Championing support for Chavez and policies 6 =Denouncing Chavez 7 =A critique of white house intervention in Venezuelan matters 8 =Concerns over Venezuelan influence in Latin America 9 =Need to counter Chavez influence over other states 10 =That socialist economies are often a disaster 11 =Concerns over human rights abuse 12 =Concerns over Media abuse 13 =Need to have effective policies to deal with Venezuela 14 =Supporting regime change 15 =Denouncing regime change Tertiary Themes: 1 =Concerns over Venezuelan crises impacting the   world 2 =Concerns over   Venezuelan crises impacting the US 3 =Concerns of economic and political life of Venezuelans being grim 4 =Concerns over oil supply and price hikes 5 =Championing support for Chavez and policies 6 =Denouncing Chavez 7 =A critique of white house intervention in Venezuelan matters 8 =Concerns over Venezuelan influence in Latin America 9 =Need to counter Chavez influence over other states 10 =That socialist economies are often a disaster 11 =Concerns over human rights abuse 12 =Concerns over Media abuse 13 =Need to have effective policies to deal with Venezuela 14 =Supporting regime change 15 =Denouncing regime change Other Themes?: Please state Orientation of Editorial:   1= event-oriented   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   2= issue-oriented Framing of the Editorial: (A) References To Sources Domestic Sources( in US or UK) : please indicate International Sources(in Venezuela) : please indicate Other Sources: please indicate How instrumental is the source to the story: 1=very central; 2= central; 3= moderately mentioned; 4=only gets a mention (B) Character of Commentary Evaluation of Commentary: 1= very laudable; 2= favorable; 3= neutral; 4= critical; 5= abrasive; 99= other Secondary Evaluation of Commentary: 1= crusading; 2= argumentative; 3= descriptive; 4= summary; 5= cynical; 6= à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"humorousà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢; 7= à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"warningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢/ à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"helpfulà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢; 8= à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"lyricalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢; Descriptive Characterization of President Chavez in editorials: As 1= authoritarian   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   2= socialist/leftist   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   3= populist   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   4= autocrat   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   5= strongman   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   6= bold   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   99= other ( please state) Characterization of other persons in editorials: please mention character and indicate descrption Main Discourse: Please state any significant words used: Location of word in editorial: 1= headline   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚      2= main body 7) BIBLIOGRAPHY Althaus, Scott L. 2003. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When News Norms Collide, Follow the Lead: New Evidence for Press Independence.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Political Communication, 20 Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence. Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994) Berger, Arthur Asa.(1998) Media Analysis Techniques 2nd Edition. Berger, Arthur Asa.(1998) Media Analysis Techniques 2nd Edition(PAPER BACK) Bennett, W.L. (1980) Public Opinion in American Politics. New York: Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich .In Huang, Zhi. Framing the War: A Comparative Study of Coverage of the Iraq War By Two Chinese Newspapers and Two US NewspapersPaper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden, Germany, Jun 16, 2006. posted:2009-05-25 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 7 Bloch-Elkon, Y. (2007) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Studying the Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy in International Crises: The United States and the Bosnian Crisis, 1992à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"1995à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Press/Politics 12 (4) In Evans, M. , 2008-03-26 The Effect of Media Framing on International Affairs: the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictPaper presented at the annual meeting of the ISAs 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA Online APPLICATION/PDF. 2010-01-24 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1, (The writers attribute this point to Entman (1989,p. 5) where he takes the Media à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"to task for failing to investigate nascent signs of policy blunders or ethical lapses among high officials.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢) Cohen, E. (1997) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Codes of Journalism Ethicsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? in E. Cohen and D. Elliot (ed.) Journalism Ethics: A Reference Handbook, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, Ca. 39-54 cited in Evans, M. , 2008-03-26 The Effect of Media Framing on International Affairs: the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictPaper presented at the annual meeting of the ISAs 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA Online APPLICATION/PDF. 2010-01-24 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 2 Communication 10: cited in Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65 CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 4. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1 Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company. DA Scheufele : Framing as a theory of media effects . The Journal of Communication .1999 vol 49(1) Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, Choices, Values, and Frames, American Psychologist, 39 (1984): 341-50; Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, The Psychology of Preferences, Scientific American, 39 (1982): 136-42) In, The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence Author(s): Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), Domke, D., Shah, D. V., Wackman, D. B. (1998). Media priming effects: Accessibility,   associations, and activation. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 10(1), 51-74. In Shen, Fuyuan. The Effect of News Frames and Individual Schemas on Issue Interpretations and Attitudes. Druckman, J. (2001a) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Political Behavior 23 (3) 225-256.cited in Evans, M. , 2008-03-26 The Effect of Media Framing on International Affairs: the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictPaper presented at the annual meeting of the ISAs 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA Online APPLICATION/PDF. 2010-01-24 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. Dunwoody, S. (1992). The media and public perceptions of risk: How journalists frame risk stories . In Kirk Hallahan. Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH(1999), 11(3), Edelman, M. (1964) The Symbolic Uses of Politics. Glencoe: University of Illinois Press. Cited in Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65; Edelman, M. (1993) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Contestable Categories and Public Opinionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Political Communication 10: 232 .In Huang, Zhi.https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky. Manufacturing Consent. The political Economy of the Mass Media.(1988) Entman R. (2000) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Declaration of Independence: The Growth of the Media After the Cold Warà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? In B. Nacos, R. Shapiro and P. Isernia (eds.), Decision-Making in a Glass House, Rowman Littlefield, Lanham, Md. 11-26. cited in Evans, M. , 2008-03-26 The Effect of Media Framing on International Affairs: the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictPaper presented at the annual meeting of the ISAs 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA Online APPLICATION/PDF. 2010-01-24 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. Entman, R. B. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 52. In Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 54. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company Entman, Robert M. (1991) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing US Coverage of International News: Contrasts in Narrative of the KAL and Iran Air Incidentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journal of Communication 41(4): . In In Huang, Zhi. Framing the War: A Comparative Study of Coverage of the Iraq War By Two Chinese Newspapers and Two US NewspapersPaper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden, Germany, Jun 16, 2006 Not Available. 2009-05-25 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html . Entman, Robert M. (1993) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journal of   Communication 43(4): . In Na Zhang S. I. Framing of the 2003 Iraq War in Mainstream News Sites: A Comparative Study of Online News Coverage Among Five Permanent Member States of the United Nations Security Council (Abstract submitted to ICA) Newhouse School of Public Communications, Syracuse University October, 2003 Evans, M. ,   The Effect of Media Framing on International Affairs: the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictPaper presented at the annual meeting of the ISAs 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA. Online .2010-01-24 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. Framing of the 2003 Iraq War in Mainstream News Sites: A Comparative Study of Online News Coverage Among Five Permanent Member States of the United Nations Security Council (Abstract submitted to ICA) Na Zhang S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications, Syracuse University October, 2003 Gamson, W. A. (1992). Talking politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. In Shen, F. , 2003-05-27 The Effect of News Frames and Individual Schemas on Issue Interpretations and AttitudesPaper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Marriott Hotel, San Diego, CA Online .PDF. 2009-05-26 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112115_index.html Gamson, W. A., Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach.American Journal of Sociology, 95, 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"37. In Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 53. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company Gans, H.J.Deciding Whats News. (1979) pg 37New York: Vintage Books. Cited in   CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 4. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1 Gerbner, George. (1964) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Ideological Perspective and Political Tendencies in News Reportingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journalism Quarterly 41: 495à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"508.In Huang, Zhi.https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html Huang, Zhi. Framing the War: A Comparative Study of Coverage of the Iraq War By Two Chinese Newspapers and Two US NewspapersPaper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden International Congress Centre, Dresden, Germany, Jun 16, 2006.posted 2009-05-25 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html nts Isaac A. Blankson, Patrick D. Murphy. Negotiating democracy: media tranformations in emerging democracies (2007) Jan A. Schevitz. The Fourth Branch of Government. An Analysis of the Initiative and Referendum Process and How the Internet Might Improve It. Senior Paper Law, Letters Society. (May 2000) Kim S.T. (2000) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Making a Difference: US Press Coverage of the Kwangju and Tiananmen Pro-Democracy Movementsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 77(1): 22à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"36. In Huang, Zhi.https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html. Kirk Hallahan. Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH, 11(3), pg   209 (1999) Kinder, D. R., Sanders, L. M. (1990). Mimicking political debate with survey questions: The case of White opinion on affirmative action for blacks. Social Cognition, 8(1),p.74. In   Kirk Hallahan. Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH, 11(3), pg   209 (1999) Nelson T E, Clawson,   R A Oxley, Z M.(1997). Media Framing of a civil liberties conflict   and its effects on tolerance. American Political Science Review, 91 pg 221. cited in Evans, M. , 2008-03-26 The Effect of Media Framing on International Affairs: the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictPaper presented at the annual meeting of the ISAs 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA Online APPLICATION/PDF. 2010-01-24 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. Norris, P. (1995). The restless searchlight. Network news framing of the post-cold war. Political Communication 12 , 358. In Huang, Zhi.https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html Pan, Z. and G.M. Kosicki (1993) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Political Communication 10: cited in Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65; Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009 Piers Robinson. The CNN effect: the myth of news, foreign policy and intervention.(2002) Introduction. Pg 1. Rachlin, A. (1988) News as Hegemonic Reality: American Political Culture and the Framing of News Accounts. New York: Praeger. In Huang, Zhi.https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html. Scheufele, D.A. (1999) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing as a Theory of Media Effectsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journal of Communication 49(1): 102à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"22. In Huang, Zhi.https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html Shanto Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1991)pg 38. In Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence. Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), Shen, F. , 2003-05-27 The Effect of News Frames and Individual Schemas on Issue Interpretations and AttitudesPaper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Marriott Hotel, San Diego, CA Online .PDF. 2009-05-26 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112115_index.htmlpg 2 The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence Author(s): Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN   DEMOCRACY:A STRATEGIC APPROACH. June 1999. 9(Technical Publication Series) pg 3- Center for Democracy and Governance Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support, and Research U.S. Agency for International Development Washington, D.C. Thomas E. Nelson, Rosalee A. Clawson and Zoe M. Oxley. Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and Its Effect on Tolerance.   American Political Science Association Tinsley, H.E.A., Weiss, D.J. (2000), Interrater reliability and agreement, in Tinsley, E.A., Brown, S.D. (Eds),Handbook of Applied Multivariate Statistics and Mathematical Modeling, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, Todd Gitlin, The Whole World is Watching (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980) p. 7.) In Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009. Tuchman, G. (1978) Making the News. Pg ix. Cited in. Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR COMMUNICATION STUDIES 2003; 65; [1] THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN   DEMOCRACY:A STRATEGIC APPROACH. June 1999. 9(Technical Publication Series) pg 3- Center for Democracy and Governance Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support, and Research U.S. Agency for International Development Washington, D.C. American Political Science Association [3] Isaac A. Blankson, Patrick D. Murphy. Negotiating democracy: media tranformations in emerging democracies (2007) Pg 118 [4] CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 1. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1.o make news, events [5] Jan A. Schevitz. The Fourth Branch of Government. An Analysis of the Initiative and Referendum Process and How the Internet Might Improve It. Senior Paper Law, Letters Society.pg 26 (May 2000) [6]CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 4. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1, (The writers attribute this point to Entman (1989,p. 5) where he takes the Media à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"to task for failing to investigate nascent signs of policy blunders or ethical lapses among high officials.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢) [7] Althaus, Scott L.. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When News Norms Collide, Follow the Lead: New Evidence for Press Independence.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (2003) Political Communication, 20: 382, [8] Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky. Manufacturing Consent. The political Economy of the Mass Media.(1988) The CNN effect: the myth of news, foreign policy and intervention.(2002) Introduction. Pg 1. [10] . CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 4. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1 [11] Ibid pg 4 o make news, events [12] Ibid pg 2.   (The writers refer to studies done by Galtung and Ruge (1965)   who identified à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"factors that predispose foreign events to become news: such as elite nations, negative events, unexpectedness-within-predictability, and cultural proximity.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢) [13]Ibid pg 2. news, events [14] CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 14. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1 [15] Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 52. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company. ( The writer referred (Shoemaker Reese, 1996) that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Factors internal to journalism determine how journalists and news organizations frame issuesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ [16] Gans, H.J.Deciding Whats News. (1979) pg 37New York: Vintage Books. Cited in   CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 4. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1pg 4 o make news, events [17] CHIN-CHUAN LEE AND JUNGHYE YANG.Foreign news and national interest: Comparing U.S. and Japanese coverage of a Chinese student movement.pg 4. International Communication Gazette 1996; 56; 1pg 5 Reference made to   (Parenti, 1986; Herman Chomsky, 1988). o make news, event [18] Entman, R.M. (1993) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journal of Communication 43(4): 51à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"8. cited in Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65;pg 231 [19] Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65;pg 233 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 1-2 [21] Dunwoody, S. (1992). The media and public perceptions of risk: How journalists frame risk stories . In Kirk Hallahan. Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH, 11(3), pg   222(1999) [22]   Kinder, D. R., Sanders, L. M. (1990). Mimicking political debate with survey questions: The case of White opinion on affirmative action for blacks. Social Cognition, 8(1),p.74. In   Kirk Hallahan. Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH, 11(3), pg   209 (1999) Pg 218 [23] Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 52. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company [24] Entman, R.M. (1991) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing US Coverage of International News: Contrasts in Narrative of the KAL and Iran Air Incidentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journal of Communication 41(4): pg 7. cited in Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65; 231 Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009. pg 8 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 7 [27] Edelman, M. (1964) The Symbolic Uses of Politics. Glencoe: University of Illinois Press. Cited in Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65;pg 238 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 2-3 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 1 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 3 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html . https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 10 [33] Entman, Robert M. (1993) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Journal of   Communication 43(4): pg 53. In Framing of the 2003 Iraq War in Mainstream News Sites: A Comparative Study of Online News Coverage Among Five Permanent Member States of the United Nations Security Council (Abstract submitted to ICA) Na Zhang S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications, Syracuse University October, 2003 pg 2 [34] Kirk Hallahan. Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH, 11(3), pg   209 (1999) Pg 207 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112115_index.html pg7   https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 1 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 10 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 1 [39] The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence Author(s): Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), pp. 266. [40] The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence Author(s): Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), pp. 266 [41] The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence Author(s): Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), pp. 266   Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009 [43] Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, Choices, Values, and Frames, American Psychologist, 39 (1984): 341-50; Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, The Psychology of Preferences, Scientific American, 39 (1982): 136-42) In, The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence Author(s): Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), pp. 267 [44]   Evans, M. , 2008-03-26 The Effect of Media Framing on International Affairs: the Israeli-Palestinian ConflictPaper presented at the annual meeting of the ISAs 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA Online APPLICATION/PDF. 2010-01-24 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html.Pg 2 [45] Tuchman, G. (1978) Making the News. Pg ix. Cited in. Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR COMMUNICATION STUDIES 2003; 65; Pg 233 [46] Shen, F. , 2003-05-27 The Effect of News Frames and Individual Schemas on Issue Interpretations and AttitudesPaper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Marriott Hotel, San Diego, CA Online .PDF. 2009-05-26 from https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112115_index.htmlpg 2 [47] Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 51. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company. https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 3 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 4 [50] Gamson, W. A., Modigliani, A. (1989). Media discourse and public opinion on nuclear power: A constructionist approach.American Journal of Sociology, 95, 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"37. In Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 53. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company [51] Entman, R. B. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 51à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"58. In Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 53. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company Pg 53 [52] Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 53. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112115_index.html pg Pg 4 Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009 [55]   Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence. Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), pp. 269. [56] DA Scheufele : Framing as a theory of media effects . The Journal of Communication .1999 vol 49(1) pg 104. Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009. [58] Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 53. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company.   [59] Entman, R. B. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 52. In Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 54. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company.( A reference is made to Entman who suggested that frames in the news can be examined and identified by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the presence or absence of certain keywords, stock phrases, stereotyped images, sources of information and sentences that provide thematically reinforcing clusters of facts or judgments.) [60] Claes H. de Vreese .News framing, theory and typology Pg 54. Information Design Journal -Document Design 13(1)   2005 John Benjamins Publishing company. [61] Shanto Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1991)pg 38. In Barbara Allen, Paula OLoughlin, Amy Jasperson, John L. Sullivan The Media and the Gulf War: Framing, Priming, and the Spiral of Silence. Source: Polity, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Winter, 1994), pp. 267 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p112115_index.html pg 6 [63] Althaus, Scott L. 2003. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When News Norms Collide, Follow the Lead: New Evidence for Press Independence.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Political Communication, 20: 384 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 2 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html   pg 10 [66] Pan, Z. and G.M. Kosicki (1993) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Political Communication 10: cited in Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65; pg 238 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 2 [68] Framing of the 2003 Iraq War in Mainstream News Sites: A Comparative Study of Online News Coverage Among Five Permanent Member States of the United Nations Security Council (Abstract submitted to ICA) Na Zhang S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications, Syracuse University October, 2003 Pg 2-3 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 4 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 4 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 5 [72] Framing the NATO Air Strikes on Kosovo Across Countries: Comparison of Chinese and US Newspaper Coverage by Jin Yang Gazette 2003; 65;pg 233 Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009 Occidental College,Los Angeles, CA Report released September 2009 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 4 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 4 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 5 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 4 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 2 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 3-4 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html pg 4 [82] Framing of the 2003 Iraq War in Mainstream News Sites: A Comparative Study of Online News Coverage Among Five Permanent Member States of the United Nations Security Council (Abstract submitted to ICA) Na Zhang S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications, Syracuse University October, 2003. pg 3 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html Pg 5 https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p91337_index.html Pg 5 [85] Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward a clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 51à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"58. In Kirk Hallahan. Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH, 11(3), pg   209 (1999) https://www.allacademic.com/meta/p254266_index.html. pg 4 [87] Berger, Arthur Asa.(1998) Media Analysis Techniques 2nd Edition. Pg 116 [88] Berger, Arthur Asa.(1998) Media Analysis Techniques 2nd Edition(PAPER BACK) pg 27 [89] Berger, Arthur Asa.(1998) Media Analysis Techniques 2nd Edition(PAPER BACK) pg 25 [90] Tinsley, H.E.A., Weiss, D.J. (2000), Interrater reliability and agreement, in Tinsley, E.A., Brown, S.D. (Eds),Handbook of Applied Multivariate Statistics and Mathematical Modeling, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp.98